IGEL Conference 2000, Toronto

In our theoretical presentation, we shall clarify our view of the technique of metaphor identification and analysis in discourse with reference to the work done by a special interest group in metaphor in the Poetics And Linguistics Association run by Gerard Steen. This work is based on a cognitive approach to metaphor which also facilitates a connection with psychological research on metaphor recognition and processing. There is a particularly interesting bridging function for the use of propositional analysis as used in discourse psychology here. Ray Gibbs will address the wider psychological and cultural backgrounds of such a cognitive approach to metaphor in language use.

The workshop will then go on to have a look at some metaphors in literary texts and address the question of the reliability of their identification and analysis. In the workshop we will also discuss possibilities for doing research on the recognition and processing of these metaphors by readers of literature.

Analyses were done on a validation sample of works cited by Jungians and on thirty short stories classified by author pathology. A number of content analytic measures were used, including a dictionary designed to measure anima qualities and the Regressive Imagery Dictionary.

Validation and research studies demonstrated that authors use more primary process words in descriptions of female characters and in describing the hero/anima characters compared to the control characters. Although the overall anima measure did not produce significant results based on author pathology, an interesting pattern emerged from tags that did reach significance. For example, both validation and research studies found that romantic heroines were associated with negative animals and negation words. Authors show a tendency to use a passive style, describing anima characters by association and by saying what they are not, rather than what they are. Compared to normal authors, abnormal authors seem to show increased ambivalence. Abnormal authors use more terms of endearment in stories, combined with increased use of words connoting evil and control. Although they do not describe male characters as weak, the abnormal authors place male characters in relation to stronger others, indirectly implying weakness.

This paper focuses on the use of computer content analytic results indicating that authors with evidence of pathology adopt a more passive writing style reflective of increased ambivalence regarding romantic themes.

However, a specific type of family background pattern was identified in the Nobel Laureate Group. In 66% of cases, same-sexed parents had followed a performance related occupation such as journalism, acting, law, and ministry, or opposite sexed parents had actively engaged in literary or artistic pursuits. Of the same-sexed parents in related performance occupations, half were implicitly or explicitly interested in literature, writing, or the serious pursuit of creative work. In unrelated occupations, an additional 25% of the same-sexed parents harbored lifelong wishes to write or were enamoured with storytelling, inventiveness, or written diaries, or else engaged in other literary activities. Conclusion: Upbringing within this overall pattern of family structure induces intense motivation for literary creativity because the offspring both identify and compete with the same-sexed parents' unrealized creative goals. They are driven to live out the same-sexed parents' fantasies as well as supersede them by outstanding accomplishment in a creative field. Separate ongoing investigations of outstanding creative people in science and in other artistic fields reveal a similar family background pattern in these groups. Developmental relationships between the motivational factor and the structure of creative cognition will be discussed.

In this paper, four short text extracts on the theme of death were chosen which were meaningful and easily understandable. The materials included: a literary narrative fiction from Waterland by Graham Swift; an autobiographical narrative as a transition between fiction and nonfiction from Freud's letter to Fliess; a narrative nonfictive report from The Independent by P. Davison, and a scientific-expository text from Mourning and Melancholy by S. Freud.

Fifty motivated secondary school students before their matriculation examinations (average age 17.5 and equally divided between males and females) took part in the study. They read thoroughly all the unfamiliar texts one after another. Following the reading of a text, questionnaires specified the subject's tasks: to judge the text on a six-item semantic differential (complex-simple, meaningless-meaningful etc.); to give three key words which together expressed the meaning of the text as optimally as possible; to underline the affects which the subject felt during reading from a twelve-item list (I was happy, it bored me etc.); to enumerate the affects which the protagonist experienced. Finally, after rereading all the texts, subjects categorized each of them into one of the textual type ("genre") as follows: report, autobiographical document, literary narrative, transition between them, something else. The order of the texts, the questionnaires, and even the items, were randomized, except the last questionnaire in which only the order of items was randomized. The results for the texts are presented and discussed from the point of view of each of the most relevant variables.

In this work, I propose to investigate the teacher's behaviour and reading habits in the informal environment, or rather, inside her family context. The research theory is founded in the Empirical Study of Literature (Schmidt, 1980) and in its correlative authors. It is based on a qualitative methodology which uses the following tools: 1-recorded (informal) interviews between the researcher and the teacher about her life story (biography); 2- recorded reading aloud of literary texts by the teacher to her family; 3- recorded discussion of the texts between her and the family; and; 4- recorded interviews between the researcher and the teacher on the reading events which were previously recorded by the teacher.

The data from the interviews on biography are analyzed by a specific method: contextualised stylistics (Zyngier,1994) based on a transitivity system (Halliday, 1985). The rest of the data are analysed under certain pragmatic frames and cognition dimensions of literary reading (Vipond & Hunt, 1984) so as to evaluate participants' dialogic involvement.

These interpretations then help further create the very notion of modernity that is presumed to be the unmediated reality stimulating aesthetic experimentation. In other words, the aesthetic strategies of modernism and the historical contingencies of modernity are mutually constitutive and involve what the French philosopher Merleau-Ponty calls the "reversibility of perspectives." The art we create allows us to see both the "reality" pre-figured after the work of art and the "reality" we presume pre-exists it. In other words, the art we see, also "sees" us, in the sense it shapes not only what we have not known how to see, but also what we belive artists saw previously when they formulated their aesthetic approach. "Seeing" really is "believing"-- and they're not the same thing at all. Or, as Wallace Stevens put it, "it is the belief, and not the God, that matters."

The two factors we investigated were reader's ratings of whether they liked the character (liked or disliked) and if their judgement of the type of person that the character was (good or bad). Both of these were rated on a scale of 1 to 6. One was the extreme positive rating (I liked this character a lot; I would judge this character to be an extremely good person) and 6 was the extreme negative rating (I disliked this character a lot; I would judge this character to be an extremely bad person). A preliminary analysis of the data has been conducted. Judgment of the character did not seem to matter for their wants. However, the reader's liking of the character did seem to be a significant predictor.

The results of two experiments indicate that thematic activation is spontaneous. The first experiment demonstrated a significant difference in response times to the probe when participants engaged in deliberative processing. Experiment 2 attempted to encourage deliberative processing and found an overall significant effect for response times. Furthermore, participant ratings of the similarity between each story and the adage were collected in a separate study. When deliberative processing was not encouraged, the similarity ratings for Story B were significantly correlated with standardized response times. However, when deliberative processing was encouraged, similarity ratings for Story A were significantly correlated with standardized response times. These results show that thematic activation depends on the storage and retrieval conditions.

Involvement with drama is thought capable of relieving aversive emotions. Aristotle said so, and his suggestion has been a truism ever since. Corroborating colloquial evidence abounds, too. But oddly, empirical-minded investigators have been utterly frustrated in their attempts at providing compelling support for cathartic emotion purgation. Why? In hopes of gaining some appreciation for the dilemma, I shall examine a sampling of research on the emotional consequences of exposure to drama, to comedy and tragedy in particular, but also to music. Refinements of, and amendments to, the ancient doctrine will be considered in efforts to make the best of a confused situation.

Implications of these possibilities have been examined in a number of studies. One study demonstrated that when information is conveyed in the form of a narrative, accompanying the information by pictures facilitates comprehension and, therefore, increases the extremity of judgments based on it. When the same information is conveyed in a list, however, the pictures interfere with comprehension. Moreover, asking persons explicitly to imagine the events describe has much the same effect as actual pictures.

A second study demonstrated that when people are asked to write a narrative description of the events they have encountered (e.g., those they have seen in a movie), this more abstract verbal representation can interfere with their memory for the original material. Thus, the comprehension of written narratives may be facilitated by constructing visual images of the events described. At the same time, writing a narrative on the basis of observations may be have a detrimental effect on memory for the visual images that were formed from these observations at the time the observations were made.

In order to test the validity of this conceptualisation, an extensive interview study (30 participants) was carried out, the first part of the study focusing on media products, the second part on media reception. For data collection, the semi-structured interview was used in combination with a number of free sorting tasks. Where media products were concerned, the interviews were supplemented by the use of a structure formation technique in order to reconstruct participants' subjective theories on the four main topics of the interview: (1) view of the relation between mediated and unmediated experience; (2) types of media products; (3) conceptualisation of 'fiction'; and (4) conceptualisation of 'non-fiction'. In addition, a content analysis of the interviews was carried out. The results of the first part of this study (concerning media products) will be presented in greater detail.

Although teaser endings do not appear to be hurting the box office success of these films, there is no indication how audiences actually feel about this type of ending. Thus, this study seeks to explore what effect, if any, differences in ending type have on audience perceptions of the films.

Four horror films were manipulated to create versions with traditional endings (endings in which the evil/antagonist is destroyed) or teaser endings (endings in which the evil/antagonist revives). Consistent with theories of suspense, viewers who watched the films with traditional endings found the films more enjoyable. Influences of gender and watcher type were also examined, although no significant interactions with ending type were found.

The problem posed by rereading for these theories can be seen if we assume that most readers of ordinary entertainment fiction prefer to read a text once, but that some people also choose to reread a text two or more times. The Willing Suspension of Memory theories, Shift of Motivation theories, and theories of Character Identification are all consistent with the occurrence of rereading, but are not consistent with the evidence that most people prefer to read a narrative only once. The Uncertainty theory predicts single reading, but fails to predict rereading. Thus, none of the narrative theories is capable of dealing with reader behavior in reading simple entertainment texts.

In the final section of this paper I will attempt to modify each of these theories to account for the core reading/rereading phenomena and then evaluate each modified theory.

Unlike psychoanalysis which focuses on unconscious aspects of aesthetic activity, we are more concerned with conscious, "apical" (by Vygotsky's terminology) aspects of this activity. Based on our studies (R.R. Karakozov,1997) considering artworks as a particular form of communication of personal sense (A. N. Leontiev), we postulate that aesthetic activity of a subject is determined by his/her general sense or searching activity, striving to make sense of his/her biographical life-experience. Developing this postulate we assumed that the process of reflexion is the central unit of artistic-aesthetic activity of subject. However, it is quite complicated to catch this invisible reflexive work by analysis because it "evaporates" in the final output-art work. In order to trace this reflexive activity we need especial methods. Dealing with this, we have elaborated a special method of diary-keeping activity. The main idea underlying this method is the suggestion that studying so called "intermediate" forms of aesthetic activity, such as diary keeping activity, can help us to "catch" the peculiarities of the mind's reflexive activity and to look into the regularities of aesthetic activity.

Using semiotic, systems, and content analyses as cornerstones of a qualitative study which considers over 109 books, this research explores patterns of representation and misrepresentation in ethnic children's literature. The study continues by comparing children's literature and mainstream American cultural structures which have historically been used to reduce the significance of the heritage of Poles. It concludes by offering means through which the publishing industry in the U.S. might be politically and economically persuaded to generate higher quality children's literature relating to people of Polish decent in greater numbers.

This empirically based research considers issues of ethnic hegemony and the role of children's literature in hegemonic cultural production. Taking into account both text and illustrations, this research explores trends within the literature which arguably constitute foundations of bigotry against Polonians. In moving towards "multi" in multicultural literature and education to mean more than categories of race, this research seeks to work against constructed elements of culture which categorically dominate entire groups.

This paper is based on an large empirical research of the images of the Sorbs - as a Slavic minority in Germany - in the German press from 1994 to 1999. Contemporary research of images of ethnic minorities on the TV are raised too. Examples of significant images are, on the one hand: "Yesterday is here", "The Sorbs have always been peasants", "Today the Sorbs are responsible for ancient customs". On the other hand, there are images like: "The Sorbs are champions of survival", "To grow up with two languages is fun" and "I am both." In my opinion, purity and hybridization are two vital patterns of thought.

My theoretical argument tries to open ethnological cultural studies to some of the considerations of system theory and to integrate ethnically-based cultural diversity into "Differenztheorie". The question of observation and evaluation of differences and hybridization can be posed as a basic problem in contemporary empirical cultural studies.

A sample of 100 Hungarian youth-novels was also selected. All novels were first published in this century, 10 in each decade. Historical content of the novels was analyzed in terms of history perceptions. (Which event/s are depicted and how they are presented.) Success of the books was also measured by the number of published copies, the frequency of publications, etc.

Results are interpreted in terms of correspondences and deviations between two types perceptions of history in relation to the relative success of the books. In a broader theoretical framework, the role of literary narratives in constructing and maintaining national historical narratives is analyzed.

Methods: Two pre-structured interviews were conducted with each of the participants. The first (introductory) interview aimed to establish the independent variables historical knowledge and interest, sources of knowledge, involvement or distance with respect to the theme, literary socialization, concepts of literature, and specific experience with Holocaust literature. The second interview was concerned with the interpretation and evaluation of three literary texts, which can be conceived of as experimental in different ways (texts by Tabori, Hilsenrath, and Ransmayr). The students had three to four weeks time between the interviews to read the texts. The verbal data were interpreted according to the standard processes of content analysis and, in a second stage, subjected to statistical analyses.

Globalization, as it is present for us today, is not an absolutely new kind of phenomenon, but the result of an acceleration of technological innovation, the result of an extension of markets (and marketing activities), and of the experience of omnipresent and permanent access to, or availability of, transnational and transcultural contacts, products, and services.

The world was prepared and educated for the age of globalization since the first writings had crossed cultural borderlines. The digital revolution now meets some of the expectations directed towards a global society. What does that mean for communication and media, for literature and the arts, for social structures and democracy?

Global Media Generations ­ An Austrian Perspective
Theo Hug

At the beginning of the 21st century, it becomes obvious that the 20th century has shaped a unique idea of a common global identity, which has been enhanced by the globalization of satellite and computer technologies, by the international distribution of political, cultural and economical events, the increasing relevance of international political alliance and cooperation, the awareness of the global relation of the ecological environment, the awareness of the diversity of cultures across the globe, a new notion of global risks and crises and a worldwide understanding of humanity and democracy. The project "Global Media Generations 2000" makes a contribution to the reconstruction of the memory of events in these areas, as they have become substantial elements of individual views of the 'world,' of edcuation within an international community and of global citizenship. It analyzes and interprets media related knowledge segments of different, globally spread age cohorts. Furthermore, it is the goal of the project to promote the understanding of the 20th century by bringing to the fore media events of one century, not as historical 'facts' but as substantial elements of a new global collective memory, across different generations and geographical world regions. Along with the project approach and methodology some results of the Austrian section are presented.

Even though the Internet is by now an integral part of many people's lives, academic circles still haven't come up with theoretical analyses or explanations. The need for appropriate Internet theories is very high, though. A phenomenon that began as a technological experiment has started to radically transform our lives, our way of thinking. In order to master this powerful movement, we should create a viable theoretical background.

As a starting point for an Internet theory, I will analyse, how far the technical characteristics of the Net determine its capacities and the users' behaviour in contact with it. To theoretically grasp the new medium, a comparison to other mass media will be helpful. I will outline the similarities and differences between the Internet and traditional mass media, especially TV.

The Internet's rapid growth and diversification in possibilities for using the Net requires an analytical tool that is able to reflect and keep up with the continuous changes in the Net. The broad dialogue within the field of constructivist theory make this school a promising candidate for the task at hand. As theoretical takes on TV from a constructivist angle already exist, I will check whether the criteria developed for TV can also be applied on the Internet. In this process the aspects self-sustainability, operational impermeability, informational openness and self-referenciality deserve special attention.

Internet Communication and Anonymity:

In my paper I would like to report on new results of the research into reputations of literary authors and critics. By means of a case study I explored what factors contribute to the rather divergent developments in the critical appreciation of literary works. Looking over a considerable period of time, two aspects turned out to be of major influence. First, the specific phase of a literary career; is an author young and upcoming or is he or she an author 'of age'? Second, the way the cultural constellation develops; institutions such as literary criticism, publishers, and the media are constantly changing. The dynamics of the cultural field clearly affect the careers of individual authors.

The present study sets out to shed light on the professional characteristics of this particular class of cultural 'judges', drawing on a large scale survey among critics working in the Dutch daily and weekly press. The results of this survey will be compared with the outcomes of a survey that was held in 1968, to see what changes have occurred over time in the backgrounds, career paths, personal attitudes, professional orientations and role conceptions of journalistic critics.

* art is used in a general sense, including literature, film, theater, etc.

In this paper I consider how in recent decades, the criteria by which cultural repertoires are established have lost some of their discriminatory value. Cultural contents are more diversified, genre classifications are being overstepped, there is less consensus in the field about what is legitimate art, and the number of legitimizing agents seems to have multiplied. Everything seems to indicate that this border erosion within and between cultural fields corresponds to processes of increased social mobility and individualization not only in Dutch society but also in the USA. A second trend is that of globalization of cultural contents. For many years, national culture was the primary object of canon formation in the service of national identity formation. In the Netherlands, for instance, national literature and, in the US, literature of Anglo-Saxon inspiration constituted the reference point for canon formation at school (Moerbeek 1998; Tanja Janssen 1998; Corse 1996; Bryson 2000). In recent decades, however, this has become at best one of many options. This is partly due to the increase in international traffic, enabling humans to cross limits of time and space, and new forms of electronic media which permit instantaneous communication of and interaction on ideas, images, and sounds of different cultures. At the same time, and this is a third trend, there is an increasing segmentation of cultural preferences: while at an individual or subgroup level preferences may remain relatively stable, they are no longer generally shared. For individuals or smaller groups, they relate, instead, to a specific genre or a particular set of cultural goods. As a consequence, a gradually more global culture tends to include a growing number of special interest groups, each focussing on a small number of cultural expressions and goods.

Processes of erosion, globalization and segmentation occur in all cultural domains, and with respect to literature, in particular in the formal repertoires transmitted by the education system. Twenty-five years ago, there was greater consensus on Dutch literature and on the ranking of authors who constituted the school canon. Since then, this consensus has slowly eroded: today, there are hardly any standard lists in secondary education, and the texts chosen belong to various genres, several of which did not even count as literature in the past. Therefore, the present cultural classification system appears less hierarchical, less universal and, within cultural sectors (pop music, plastic arts) more differentiated. On the basis of an integrated approach, that is, by taking account of the interrelated processes in the fields of production and consumption, more specifically, by paying due attention to the changes on the dimensions of late twentieth century art classification systems, researchers of cultural stratification will be in the position to answer more satisfactorily the question of which cultural traits, which modes of cultural capital, and which types of cultural socialization appear most effective.

Focusing on retrospective comments on the reading performance, Don Kuiken will articulate the rationale for phenomenological analyses of readers' reflections on the reading experience. To demonstrate this approach, he will describe how numerically aided phenomenology has been used to systematically identify classes (or types) of reading experience, including a form of expressive enactment that resembles classical accounts of aesthetic experience.

Focusing on the reading performance, Art Graesser will present an integrated approach to the investigation of literary comprehension that involves: (1) dissection of the text at multiple levels of language and discourse structure; (2) evaluation of the extent to which a population of readers has mastered each level of discourse structure; (3) specification of theories, models or hypotheses in sufficient detail to provide discriminating predictions; and (4) collecting behavioral data to test those predictions.

Focusing on the text itself, Colin Martindale will present the general principles of content analysis and related procedures. To exemplify this mode of analysis, he will describe how the primordial content analysis approach was used to analyze British, French, and American historical trends in poetry. To indicate the utility of this approach, he will demonstrate its use in author attribution, identifying poets' temperaments, and inferring the meaning of a narrative from trends in primordial content.

Focusing on accounts of absorption in reading, Ingrid Braun and Gerry Cupchik had respondents describe their reactions to self-selected materials and to those of the experimenters. The phenomenological aspects of reader responses involving time, space, causality, and materiality, were related to perceived text qualities. They also rated the materials on various 7-point scales and their judgments were factor analyzed. Relations between the qualitative and quantitative data sets will be described.

Discussion after these presentations will compare and contrast the assumptions that guide the selection and implementation of these methods of textual analysis. The presenters will try to identify the research contexts within which each approach has its greatest utility.

Difficulties arising from the use of imaginative variation motivated the development of numerically aided phenomenology (Kuiken, Schopflocher, & Wild, 1989; Kuiken & Miall, 1995). In this approach, recurrent meaning expressions are identified and paraphrased within a set of experiential narratives. Then judgments about their presence or absence are used to create matrices reflective of the profiles of meanings expressed in each experiential narrative. Finally, cluster analytic algorithms are used to group these experiential narratives according to the similarities in their profiles of meaning expressions. In this way, classes of similarly reported experiences - and their distinctive attributes - can be systematically identified. A phenomenological study of literary reading will be used to highlight: (1) how the pre-theoretical explication of recurrent meaning expressions differs from content analysis; (2) how the polythetic classes resulting from numerically aided phenomenology resist "operational definition"; and (3) how the description of these classes of experience can rigorously and sensitively capture the lived experience of literary reading.

My presentation will focus on analyses of language and discourse structure. One central challenge is to formulate an experimental design that adequately tests whether a particular level of language or discourse is truly constructed on-line. For example, does the reader construct inferences about characters' motives, spatial layout, characters' emotions, or a global theme of a literary story? Does the reader construct a pragmatic dialog between narrator and narratee, or between the writer and reader? Does the reader have remindings of previous experiences while reading a narrative? Does a reader bask in appreciation of a particular statement, episode, or literary device? How would one design an experiment to rigorously assess these possibilities?

To demonstrate why content analysis is necessary for literary analysis, comparison with the study of individual differences is useful. Although all people are unique, in the scientific study of individual differences, we group people into a small number of categories or array them along a small number of dimensions. It is of scientific interest to know that extraverts are less inhibited than introverts, but it is of no scientific interest to know whether I am more or less inhibited than Gerry Cupchik. Similarly, in general, the idiographic study of individuals or works of literature is a matter for biographers or literary critics rather than for scientists. To study literature scientifically, we need content analysis (as well as lexical statistics such as average sentence length, the type-token ratio, etc.) to assess an author's state of mind.

I have developed a content analysis dictionary that gets at primordial vs. conceptual content. The dictionary has allowed me to test my theory of aesthetic evolution on the history of American, British, and French poetry. Because of the large amounts of texts that had to be analyzed, this could not have been done without a content analytic "mnemonic" device. The dictionary has also been useful in decoding the symbolic meaning of different classes of narratives. Other dictionaries have been useful in the study of author attribution, but idiosyncratic differences in the use of common function words are usually more useful in such studies.

Reader absorption implies an understanding about the absorbing text, so delineating the processes involved in reading is a prudent first step towards understanding reader absorption. There are three phases to this study, and each consists of an interview which was ultimately transcribed. Interviews were conducted with 24 participants (12 females, 12 males) who demonstrated familiarity with being lost in a book. These interviews were analyzed for meaningful elements in order to illuminate the experiential components of the reading process.

Phase I consisted wholly of an interview in which participants answered questions geared to elicit responses regarding the experiential components of the reading process. Phase II was an exploration of the more cognitive aspects of how readers develop meaning on-line. It included a reading task in which participants read two of four literary passages and a questionnaire. Phase III involved a short discussion of a well-liked passage of the participant's choice. These protocols were analyzed for common statements about how it feels to be lost in a book.

The results from Phase I revealed reading processes involved in experience construction by articulating them as categories. Analysis also demonstrated that two types of readers, each differentiated by level of critical analysis skills, generated further subcategories which manifested themselves along a continuum. Phase II revealed additional processes involved in meaning construction. Phase III data illustrated how the experiential and meaning components work in conjunction to create an absorbing reading experience.

15. Paper Session

On a similar tone, Khajeh Naseereddin insists that, with respect to social conduct, the nature of a person places him in one of five different groups. At one extreme, the nature is good, pure enough to propagate to others. At the other extreme, it is vile, depraved enough to diffuse throughout society. This study investigates the literary works of Sa'di and Khajeh Naseereddin relevant to theories of deviance. It explores the concept of "nature" and groups of people discussed by these two scholars.

In this presentation three musicians (a pianist, cellist, and soprano) will conduct an experiment in musical performing and listening in the spirit of the amateur, i.e., the lover of music. By regarding the audience as co-participants, we explore some of the multi-layered facets of aesthetic experience through the interspersing of live musical performance with verbal and visual text in an ever-evolving constructed event among the composer(s), piece(s), performer(s), and listeners.Building on Roland Barthes's prescribed conditions for the survival of "classical" music in the twenty-first century, we seek to show that, in order for music not to be passively consumed, the conventional division between audience and performer of the concert hall must be replaced by the intersubjective dynamics of what Barthes calls "a studio, a workshop, and atelier." We believe this potential for embodied musical experience holds promise for aesthetic education. In our live performance presentation, we attempt to forge links between past, present, composer, work, performer, and listener by playing two of Robert and Clara Schumann's works for piano and cello and contextualizing them within a multi-modal format through the use of diaries, letters, secondary biographical and historical material, photographs, and poetry, thus illustrating and enacting the concepts of the amateur, the atelier, and embodied musical experience.

Shakespeare's innovation was to show a particular kind of life, in the theatre, as a way of simulating the interactions of people with their predicaments so that the deep structure of selfhood and social interaction becomes clear. I will explore this idea by analyses of Henry IV part 1, and Hamlet. I will also argue that as we run such simulations on our own minds, we not only experience the emotions and hence the urgency of the human vicissitudes and dilemmas that cause them, but we are enabled to reflect on them in such a way as to create deeper level mental models of ourselves and others

To illustrate the power of our analysis, we present results from studies on trauma, stressful events, conflictual interaction, and negotiation. We show the types of discourse that define emotional experience, the ways in which emotions can be distinguished from other affective states, and the predictive power of specific emotions during individual private interviews and face-to-face interaction. We describe the ways in which emotions, beliefs, goals, and actions are linked together, and the ways in which emotions predict the appraisals that people make about one another. Finally, we show how our analysis of emotional experience predicts accurate memory for events as well as states of psychological well-being (e.g., depression, anger, happiness).

You know, don't you, that the beginning of any process is most important,

especially for anything young and tender? It's at that time that it is most

malleable and takes on any pattern one wishes to impress on it.

Exactly.

Then shall we allow the children to hear any old stories, told by just

anyone, and to take beliefs into their souls that are for the most part

opposite to the ones we think they should hold when they are grown up?

We certainly won't.

Then we must first of all, it seems, supervise the storytellers. We'll

select their stories whenever they are fine or beautiful and reject them

when they aren't. And we'll persuade nurses and mothers to tell their

children the ones we have selected, since they will shape their children's

souls with stories much more than they shape their bodies by handling them.

Many of the stories they tell, however, must be thrown out. (337b-c)

A young man is not a proper hearer of lectures on political science; for he

is inexperienced in the actions that occur in life, but its discussions

start from these and are about these. (1095a)

Any one who is to listen intelligently to lectures about what is noble and

just and, generally, about the subjects of political science must have been

brought up in good habits. (1095b)

Many discussions of literature's effects on readers' beliefs, attitudes, and behavior have focused on literary content as only a collection of facts. For example, researchers who have considered the impact of violent content have often examined only the presence or absence of violence. I suggest that, in addition, researchers should be attentive to the ways in which the unfolding of causes and consequences in literary narratives affect readers' plans and expectations for their own day-to-day experiences. In particular, readers may apply intuitive theories of literary aesthetics to their own life stories.

The fair breeze blew, the white foam flew,

The furrow followed free;

We were the first that ever burst

Into that silent sea

Such interpretations are predicated on the assumption that language phonemes can and do indeed transmit meanings of a sort. This assumption runs counter, however, to the wide consensus in linguistics, going back to Saussure, that the relation between language phonemes and the meaning of words is arbitrary. To our knowledge, the assumption that this relation may acquire a different dimension for some purposes, for instance in the realm of aesthetics, has never been tested. Such is the aim of the present paper.

The association of sound with the concept Rabbit (R) and Poisonous Snake (PS) was examined using the conjoint measurement model with the two factors Consonant and Vowel, each with three levels: "K", Ts" and "N" and "ah", "oh" and "ieh" respectively. Likert scales derived from polyadic structured interviews in the context of both animals were also collected. The relative importances of the two factors and the utilities of the levels and relationships with the Likert scales were examined. It was hypothesized that the "hard" consonants "K" and "Ts" and the "close" vowel "ieh" would be associated with PS, the "soft" consonant "N" and the open vowels "ah" and "oh" with R. The hypothesis for the consonant was strongly supported, that for the vowels rejected. Consonants received clearly higher
importance weights. The correlations of the utility values with the Likert scales provide further insight into the meaning of sound.

Embodied readers are not only situated as to race, class, gender, and multifarious considerations of difference, but with respect to how they are positioned along the continuum of a "sovereign" or a "regressed" reading ego (Nell,1988). That is, any one act of literary engagement will be contingent upon individual readers' relationship to the content and context of the reading material in terms of what we refer to as the reader's "feeling, power, and location problems." The second part of the paper offers an approach to embodied reading which marries Frye's aim of reintegrating Eliot's dissociation of sensibility with some of the principles of feminist pedagogy, in which reader's situated-ness in an increasingly variegated learning environment is taken seriously. Through building on "the logical priority of direct response," it is hoped that the field-tested exercises offered in this presentation and their underlying theory can enable better instances of reintegrating sensibility in literature classes such that literary reading becomes what Frye called "a means of conscious life."

This claim is not as radical as it at first sight may appear. In mainstream (emotive) psychology, Zajonc (1984), without fully resurrecting the James-Lange theory, has argued quite convincingly, against the majority of his colleagues, that since some emotional reactions are sometimes quicker than our cognitive interpretation of the situation, we may sometimes feel an emotion before we cognitively apprehend it. As a result of the subsequent neurological research supporting this claim, there has been some acceptance that a quick, automatic emotional response, momentarily eluding cognition, is possible. But this research was conducted with regard to real world emotions, an environment, which arguably might lend itself, in certain situations, to the primacy of physiological arousal over the perceived, and hence, cognitively processed, stimulus. What I wish to discuss here is whether or not one can speak of a pre-eminence of emotion over cognition during states of 'literary bliss' in reader-reception in that most cognitive of realms; literary discourse processing, and indeed whether or not this can be tested empirically. In a tentative theory based on a personal, emotive, 'reflection' of a past-locative event, experienced during moments of 'literary bliss', I shall be suggesting that emotion may sometimes appear to be pre eminent in parts of the literary reading experience.

Inspired by the work of Miall and Kuiken and their research team, and Oatley and his research team, this paper shall attempt to address this issue and hopefully generate a meaningful discussion on the cognition-emotion dichotomy in the processing of emotive literary text fragments. Such a discussion may actually result in raising more questions than it answers. But these are fundamentally inescapable issues that are pertinent to both literary aesthetics and general studies in aesthetics alike, and as such warrant meaningful investigation.

In the research, I wanted to provide a systematic account of how do actual readers process and interpret similes, with a special attention given to the semantic relationship between its three major components: Tenor, Vehicle and Predicate. More specifically, I wanted to corroborate the hypothesis that there is not necessarily a direct correlation between the explicitness of the simile i.e., whether or not the Predicate is mentioned (e.g., the cunning in example 1) and the degree of consensus obtained in its understanding. The research clarifies the process of understanding similes, and, by implication, on our understanding of metaphors and symbols.

Vorderer opens the symposium with an overview of the field of research and addresses the very meaning of "being entertained." He will speak about fundamental theories and recent developments, including interactive media and new perspectives on users and effects.

The five reports by current and past students from Hannover give examples of recent research on entertaining media, encompassing visionary forms such as interactive films.

The first two reports deal with one of the most popular TV formats in Germany, daily talk shows. Trepte and Zapfe examine viewer expectations of talk shows and the meaning of these shows as a communication platform. Sudhoff and Trepte focus on parasocial relationships between viewers and hosts of these daily talk shows. Parasocial relationships are imagined relationships that viewers have with characters in media, whether they be talk show hosts and guests or characters in films, plays, and so on.

The third report also deals with parasocial relationships, but in the context of interactive TV movies. The problem which Schramm and Schlütz tackle is whether an interactive mode of TV reception, enabling the viewer to influence both the narrative and the film characters, influences the development of parasocial relationships between viewers and protagonists.

The last two reports also concentrate on interactive media. Klimmt and Vorderer explore the attractiveness of Lara Croft, probably the most popular computer and video game character. Again parasocial interactions and relationships seem to be the central dimension to explain this phenomenon. Finally, Knobloch and Hartmann seek to distinguish genres of computer and video games based on the perception of users.

But what do ­ in the perspective of psychology and the study of literature ­ media do to entertain their audiences, and what do audiences do to be entertained? What kind of media content is considered to be "entertaining, and what psychological processes cause the perception of "being entertained"?

Finally, today's central development of entertainment, interactivity, is illustrated. In contrast to traditional entertaining formats, interactive entertainment invites "users" to actively participate in media content instead of passively witnessing it. This recursive process leads to transformations in media content. Resulting research demands and perspectives are discussed.

Two empirical studies were conducted to examine how these expectations are met in daily talk shows. The daily talk show is a very successful genre in Germany: fourteen different shows are telecast per day on similar topics, including, relationships, beauty, and personal problems. The first investigation is based on survey data with a sample of young persons. We examine the extent to which the interest in certain topics is a reaction to immediate personal problems. It turns out that teenagers use daily talk shows to solve their problems. The second study addressed the meaning and importance of participating in daily talk shows as a guest. Sixty-six semi-structured interviews were conducted. The results revealed that, for viewers who would like to visit a daily talk show as a guest, the construction of the self is one of the main motives. They see television in general, and especially the daily talk shows, as an important platform for communication.

Both the host's dominant role and the shows' intimate character make viewers feel closer to the hosts and develop para-social relationships. Besides different para-social relationships, TV viewers watch talk shows for various reasons; some use the shows to entertain themselves, others seek information.

An interaction between para-social relationships and viewing motives provides evidence for the existence of different viewing patterns among the viewers. Some viewers feel like they are friends with a host, whereas others see the host as an anchor in a news program. Our study investigates these patterns. Furthermore, we study the perceived characteristics of hosts and different concepts of the shows.

Regarding the former traditional mode of TV reception, PSI processes were highly determined by the structure of the media content or ­ concerning narratives ­ by the way the story was told and the protagonist was presented. It is obvious that a new interactive mode of TV reception, enabling the viewer to influence both the narrative and the protagonists, can create radical new possibilities for PSI.

To prove the effect of interactive narratives regarding PSI, an experiment was conducted with 427 persons, aged between 14 and 49 years, who watched a 30-minute TV-drama that differed according to the degree of possible interventions. PSI was measured in terms of socio-emotional variables like empathy, suspense, and involvement. The results show negative effects of interactivity on the development of PSI and indicate that people prefer the traditional passive mode of reception when they are watching entertaining, involving, or emotional stories in TV.

In this contribution I will contrast two periods in women's reading groups from American history. In the 19th century, these book clubs led women into various forms of reformist collective action. In the 20th century, such has not been the case. I analyze this difference in "effects" in relation to shifts in women's position in regard to both citizenship and education, as well as to shifts in the institution of literature, including the cultural mission of literature as it was formulated by critics and educators in the 19th century.

Reading Expressively Through "tears of light"
David S. Miall & Don Kuiken

Using systematic phenomenological methods (cf. Sikora, Kuiken, & Miall, 1998), we have identified a distinctive mode of reading through which literary texts, on occasion, attain expressive depth. Through this mode of reading, (1) an emergent affective theme is progressively transformed; (2) these transformations occur through synaesthetic engagement with textually grounded imagery; and (3) readers become implicated in the existential concerns embodied in the text. Readers report that this kind of reading precipitates increased sensitivity to aspects of their lives that they usually ignore. Although instigated by readers' engagement with stylistic features of the text (cf. Miall & Kuiken, 1999), reading with expressive depth is not wholly determined by such features. Instead, readers' life circumstances moderate the self-implicating and transformative effects of literary reading. Some research indicates that these moderating circumstances are dispositions, i.e., stable reader orientations. But dispositional accounts of expressive reading are vulnerable to the social constructionist critique. The ideology of the "expressive depth" may seem an historically and culturally relative set of conventions by which readers "discover" a text's illusory capacity to cultivate certain sensitivities. To counter this critique, it is important to identify life circumstances within which expressive depth "naturally" occurs through literary reading. To this end, we have undertaken studies demonstrating that the existential contingencies associated with bereavement provide conditions within which the narrative imagination, made manifest in dreams as well as literary reading, attains expressive depth. We will review research, some presented for the first time, articulating the circumstances that enable literary reading to penetrate the life world.
Reading the Culture
Sara Davis

Feminists have shown a strong interest in the effect that popular culture has on the perspective of women. Of particular interest has been an examination of the impact of romance novels. The enduring popularity of these books has been an enigma to many women's studies scholars and several explanatory theories have been offered. Because of this interest, these book have frequently been given a reading in women's studies classes although neglected in the literature classroom. When read as part of a women's studies class, the books are analyzed not as literature per se, but in terms of how they affect the women who read them. Pedagogically, students are encouraged to consider their reaction to the books, and to move from there to an analysis of what romance novels are likely to mean to women readers. In this presentation I will look first at competing explanations for the almost addictive popularity of these books. I will then describe their impact on a class of undergraduate college students.

The paper will, therefore, outline different aspects of a research design which accounts for the complexity of the observed phenomena with the complexity of its research strategies. I will focus on the development of ontological and operational knowledge (sensu Rusch) about literary action in the above mentioned four dimensions. Guided by a process-oriented constructivist attitude, my key question does not concern literature as a given fact, but how people develop individual and intersubjectively accepted notions of literature on the level of cognition, communication, media and culture. A detailed methodological discussion will show that the observation of different systemic processes calls for the consideration of different dimensions of reflexivity in the research field. Groeben's differentiation of "Handeln", "Tun" and "Verhalten" (Groeben 1986) will serve to distinguish between different degrees of reflexivity of human behaviour. To avoid methodological abstraction I will, by way of exemple, introduce one method of empirical literary research in each dimension of the outlined model, and draw the attention to the remaining problem of how data from the four dimensions can be related in a methodologically controlled way in order to give an adequate explanation of the phenomena in question.

While the results of the quantitative analysis reveal that expert readers generated relatively few analogies, the qualitative analyses suggest that regardless of the low frequencies, analogies played an important role in expert readers' literary text descriptions. The findings reveal that analogical comparisons may be constructed at any of the multiple levels of the text descriptions, i.e., the linguistic, propositional, or conceptual frame descriptions. In some cases, the analogical comparisons were signaled explicitly by the text, while in other cases the analogies were particular to individual readers and were generated from world knowledge. In addition, these expert readers generated analogical comparisons in relation to the communicative context which includes a model of the author. Such inter-textual references appear as an important vehicle for elaborating knowledge schemas which served to frame their descriptions of the text. In this way these elaborated references served as a form of data generation and management for expert readers. While providing a means of articulating large amounts of connected information, the analogical comparisons also permitted expert readers to work with multiple interpretive possibilities.

Indian society, thus with widened horizons, grew and nation developed. In this unprecedented process of social growth and national development, the Indian society, many a times, underwent several turmoils, posing imminent threats to the age old spirit of concord and harmony. In the foggy middle ages, the regimented ritualism promoted by the priests and maulavis, further deepened the socio-politico-economic conflict by widening the gap between light and darkness, knowledge and ignorance, vice and virtue, and the rich and the poor. Here when the Kings and Courtiers failed to restore in society the laws of governance, the Saint-Poets of Medieval India, like Kabir (in 15th century) through simple and popular poetic sayings, succeeded in establishing peace and harmony in the country.

Kabir wrote what he saw and experienced during his times, and like a Doctor while diagnosing the prevailing socio-politic evils of the society, prescribed Hindu-Muslim unity as its remedy proscribing the hallow rituals and unmeaningful mode of worship for both-the Hindus and the Hindus. His poetic expressions, though simple but stout, representing the age-old assimilated wits and wisdom, derived from the above mentioned literary traditions, continue serving as Becon light for the 20th century humanity, which largely suffers from conflict and social disharmony.

Being himself a weaver by profession, Kabir successfully expounded in his poetry, the science and art of weaving social harmony, peace and concord among all the sections of divergent caste, creed and culture by propounding an ideal code of conduct like, "The best way to serve the Creator is to serve His creation:; "The path to service to God lies through service to humanity"; "Satguru (God) is a giver and not a beggar"; and "Those who run after wealth..... are not true devotees". His poetry has left behind for us a poser to ponder over; "If you say God dwells only in the mosque or He dwells in an idol, then who dwells in the rest of the world? It leaves a message for humanity through this couplet:

Death after death the world dies,
But no one knows how to die;
Who knows how to die, O Kabir
Never faces death again.

A.G., p.1366:29

Indo-Anglian poetry has reached a certain height and depth today and reflects the culture and literature before the world. Nissim Ezekiel, A.K.Ramanujun, Jayant Mahapatra, R. Parthasarthi, Kamala Das, Keki-N Daruwala and Pritish Nandi have added new dimensions to the Indo-Anglian poetry both in themes and styles and the intensity of experience and sincerity of purpose. New voices are heard sweetly and new promises are made by the poets like Adil Jassuwala, Arun Khalokar, A.K. Merhotra, O.P. Bhatnagar and many others.

The present paper seeks to examine and analyse the charm and beauty of the Indo- Anglian poetry with special reference to the text­data based empirical survey of select poems by O.P. Bhatnagar,and Shiv K.Kumar and, if possible those of Nissim Ezekiel, K.V. Suryanaranyan Murthy, Jayant Mahapatra, R. Parthasarthe, A.K. Ramanujan and Kamla Das. There is a tryst with the cosmos in K.V. Suryanarayana Murthi who imparts a cosmic sweep and vision to his poetry. Mahapatra's. The False Start shows life against ruins life-giving spirit of the poems as a whole in the face of disaster, decay and death. A. K. Ramanujan's confessional poetry abandons the modernistic devices of personae, anonymity, masks, and indirection with the tendency to place the literal self more at the centre. O.P. Bhatnagar's political and protest poetry focuses on the breadth of his experience and the solemnity of his involvement in the affairs of life in an ironical manner. Shiv K. Kumar's free poetry grapples with mute confession and voiceless wailings and complex problems of an individual today. The paper also endeavors to draw comparisons and parallels with Canadian literature.

Computer and video games have become a widely spread entertainment medium. The technical development is extremely fast, and the amount of money and time spent on interactive games by the users is rising continously. In spite of that, communication science is still discovering computer games as a research topic. While a considerable number of studies have been conducted on the effects of violent video games, almost no research has dealt with how players experience video games in general.

Lara Croft (“Tomb Raider" series) is probably the most popular video game character in America and Europe. The study presented has investigated the question why this character is so popular among so many players. Parasocial interaction and play theory offer a useful framework to analyse this attraction phenomenon. Parasocial interaction theory expects that the game character is perceived by the user as a somehow real person with whom one can socially interact. According to this model, the player is fascinated by the character because it functions as an object of social cognition, similar to a television character. Various dimensions of para-social interaction, such as confidence, passion, or sociability can be differentiated.

Play theory comprises additional factors that can explain the attractivity of computer game characters. According to play theory, Lara Croft and her related characters are ideal because they are extremely realistic and fully reactive to user commands. Moreover, they open up numerous action opportunities to the player. These action possibilites make an interesting "toy" out of Lara Croft and are expected to be another reason of Lara Croft´s attractiveness.

Senders of fan mail to Lara Croft were asked to fill in a questionnaire that embraced various dimensions of parasocial interaction and play theory. Factor analysis was used to uncover factors relevant for experiencing Lara Croft as fascinating. Implications for the general attractiveness of interactive entertainment are discussed.

Computer and video games have become a common way of media use. "Interactive entertainment has graduated to mass medium status" (NUA, 1998) as more and not only juvenile users spend a considerable amount of time and money on the virtual playground. For descriptions and selections of computer games, their categorizations in genres have achieved the same importance as genres have for the landscape of literature and films. Magazines and web-sites about computer games refer as a matter of course to these genres, even though the criteria of ranging a game are very ambiguous. But research about this new form of media 'reception' requires proper labelling, as users' experiences differ fundamentally according to the subtypes of computer games. What key elements should be taken into account for this purpose? We address this problem from a theoretical and an empirical perspective.

While the assignment of linear media like books or films to genres are already often difficult, classifying non-linear computer games raise even more questions. As users create the story-line mostly by their own actions, users' perceptions are indispensable for an adequate classification of computer games. Several concepts of computer game categorizations of scholars and professionals will be presented. Results of a survey with 1125 heavy gamers will contrast these theoretical concepts with an empirical structure of computer games that bases on perceptions of users.

The choice pattern is emphaticly the research object. Although research in cultural participation usually shows a strong positive correlation between the complexity and prestige of the cultural activity on the one hand, and the intellectual capacity en social status of the participant on the other hand, there are reasons to assume that this relation has gotten weaker through time.

The influence of the educational level on the amount of reading has decreased. To a great extent, this is the result of the increase of the number of students in higher forms of education. Highly educated people with low educated parents turn out to be less culturally active as a result of the lack of a socialization stimulus. At the same time, the educational system itself has altered in the course of time because of the new students with other backgrounds.

Trends in society as leisure time growing scarce, the cultural domain getting more commercial, and borders between high-, middle- and low-brow culture slowly fading away, give rise to expectations that high- and low-art will be increasingly mixed together, especially by those who already consume more than average. Peterson (1992) talks in this regard about the existence of 'omnivore-patterns.' Omnivores distinguish themselves by a lot of consumption and a wide variety of preferences within this consumption.

Criticism has been put forward on Peterson's measurement of omnivore-behaviour because of its aggregated nature (Van Eijck, 1998). It was suggested to use latent class analysis, which could characterize persons in their behavioral patterns on an individual level (Van Rees, Vermunt & Verboord 1999). A disadvantage of this measurement procedure, however, is that persons are labelled as either omnivore or non-omnivore without room for gradual differences.

In this paper a new way of measuring will be presented for the heterogenity of reading behaviour. This procedure allows calculating the gradual differences on an individual level.

The data are still being analyzed, but several aspects of the analysis will be completed in time for presentation at IGEL2000. Because fine detail and complex relationships are better understood in other presentation formats, the conference presentation will focus on more macro analytic aspects of the investigation. Essentially we will present a profile of the evolution of the mystery novel throughout its golden age, emphasizing major trends revealed by the normative data from our investigation. Examples and excerpts from the best-selling mystery novels of the past 80 years will be utilized to bring life to the statistical profile.

Although the story's psychological realism rivets attention, Oates' story also rests on a complex architecture of traditional literary forms like allegory, allusion, and parable, which gain synergy when combined with the author's powerful psychological realism. In fact, the story's complexity is often given short shrift because Arnold Friend, a character based on a real life Manson-type serial killer, diverts attention from the fact that Oates' story transforms the documentary realism that inspired the tale into a profound morality tale illustrating Oates' religious imagination and how that imagination throws light on its social and contemporary milieu. As a complex morality, Oates' story is rooted in Biblical literature, the folk tales of the Brothers Grimm, and the headlines of tabloid journalism. The story's most memorable character, Arnold Friend, is a chimera of Connie's fantasy world equally inspired by Hollywood icons like Marlon Brando and James Dean, by Bob Dylan's rock lyrics, and by the mall culture of California's "Valley Girls" who perpetually search for beguiling boy-toys. Little wonder that Oates' story was easily adapted into a compelling cinematic version titled Smooth Talk starring Laura Dern and Treat Williams. This fusion of literary, social, and cultural forces will require detailed explication.

This paper takes as a case study the example of Gilles Deleuze's commentary (in the form of a preface) upon D. H. Lawrence's own commentary upon the Book of Apocalypse. Further complexity is lent to the commentatorial event by two factors. First, Deleuze applies the writing of Nietzsche (notably, 'The Ante-Christ') to his reading of Lawrence. Second, the biblical 'Apocalypse' is, as Lawrence himself points out, attributable to no single writer. Its stratified texture is a composite of layers, echoings, and transformations. It appears as an adaptation of pagan and mythological traditions, assembled in particular historical circumstances, and angled towards a particular audience - that of a struggling early Christian community. As Lawrence affirms elsewhere: 'An Apocalypse has, must have, is intended to have various levels or layers of strata of meaning'.

This paper will trace Deleuze's analysis of Lawrence with reference to both the Book of Apocalypse (Revelation) and to Nietzsche. It will demonstrate that, although Deleuze summarises in his commentary many key points made by Lawrence, he also creates a further superstratum of his own, in emphasising notions of flux and transition, in ways which derive more obviously from Deleuze's own writing (particularly, with Guattari, in 'Mille Plateaux') than from that of Lawrence. This results in a softening of Lawrence's recurrently dualist perspective, and a subtle transportation of his material into a more properly Deleuzian frame of reference.

Atwood complicates the debate by providing each chapter of the novel with pictorial epigraphs which offer guidance to the reader attuned to the visual rhetoric of the sub-culture of quilting. The traditional quilt block patterns, appearing as decorative chapter-heads and as chapter titles (for example, Snake Fence, Jagged Edge, Tree of Paradise), constitute a separate trope system, employing metaphor, allusion, metonymy, and other figures of speech to construct an interpretive guide to the novel's mysteries.

This paper will decode the symbolism of the quilt blocks and their titles, consider the role of the epigraphs as interpretive metatrope, and show Atwood's integration into historiographical metafiction of a symbolic system from the cultural margin.

Immersion Studios combines the large format IMAX-style experience with the interactive potential of computer games in a group setting. Using the latest in digital technology, individual audience members can affect and control aspects of the story and its direction. There are three forms of interactive participation; personal, interactive, and competitive. Each show integrates these forms of interactivity in different combinations to heighten involvement and the entertainment experience. The presentation at Immersion Studios will include the large format visual experience (on a 24' X 72' screen) and a first-hand introduction to the various forms of interactive participation. As the members of IGEL are expert in the analysis of narrative process, we will have an opportunity for members of our creative staff to be in dialogue with them. The problems surrounding group based interactive involvement will be at the core of the presentation and subsequent discussion.

Several factors are explored as potential mediators of music's effects including music dominance, music familiarity, affect toward the music, relevance of music to the product or service, and relevance of the music to the respondent's social group. Previous research suggests that liked and relevant music should be most effective; however, no research has examined the related element of music popularity or familiarity. Thus, an important question for this investigation is whether music popularity or familiarity may have an impact separate or different from the appeal or relevance of the music alone.

Several advertisements were manipulated and embedded in normal breaks of a television program. Four different music types were substituted into the advertisements:Popular-relevant music, popular-irrelevant music, unfamiliar-relevant music, and unfamiliar-irrelevant music. The ads were further manipulated to create versions in which the music served as either the only audio element or as background to extensive narration.

The impact of these factors was assessed through survey evaluations of the advertisements and the products advertised administered after respondents had finished viewing the program.

Results showed that subject matter had an impact on the experience of the odors; consistency between positive subject matter and positive odor enhanced images, feelings, and brought the story to life. Inconsistency in the form of negative subject matter and positive odor was confusing and reduced the experience of olfactory, visual, or auditory images. In a similar way, positive style and positive odor fostered the experience of feelings, while positive style and negative odors reduced the experience of feelings. The hedonic tone of the odor also modulated the experience of the text. Subjects found it easier to imagine the scene when both odor and subject matter were positive. There were also quite a number of effects involving gender and odor for ratings of the passages. These findings underscore the importance of sensory imaginal processes in literary reception.

Within a tradition, styles can become extinct because the relationship between novelty and primordial cognition is an inverted-U one. Too much primordial cognition leads to diffuse and holophrastic thought that decreases rather than increases unpredictability. Late English metaphysical poetry is an illustration. Entire traditions can become extinct because all possible styles and words have been used. Who reads modern poetry? Who listens to modern atonal classical music? No one.

This paper examines the argument that drawing from multiple disciplinary traditions provides additional contexts against which we can set traditional disciplinary practices and thereby highlight the assumptions, values, and limitations of the different perspectives. The reported research draws on theories of situated cognition and on literary theory to investigate the activity of writing assessment. The central questions of the study are what accounts for valid assessment of written essays, and how can what we know about valid literary interpretation inform our investigation?

Six experienced and highly trained raters were divided into two groups of three raters each. Each group collaboratively rated 20 essays from an English Language Proficiency Test. The rating sessions were videotaped. The findings suggest that when the rating of essays is accomplished through collaborative dialogue, debate, justification and explanation, the essentially interpretive nature of that process is revealed. At the same time, the findings locate the interpretations not only in the textual but in the contextual evidence as well and suggest that the inferred intentions of the writer play a role in the decision-making process of experienced raters. Thus, the assessment of writing appears to be a principled hermeneutic activity sharing characteristics with literary interpretation.

When we listen to poets reciting their own work, the impression is usually of a straightforward speaking of the lines; but when we listen to actors reciting poetry we are likely to encounter many more prosodic mannerisms, which can be obtrusive. I analyse prosodically both poets' and actors' recitations, showing that the differences between them can be accounted for as differences in the sound of vocal fold vibration or 'voice quality' (Laver 1980), in the unusual placement and types of pitch accent in actors' recitations, and in the placement and length of pauses.

I go on from this analysis to speculate on the reasons for these differences, arguing that they represent different views of the nature of performance and its relation to the text. Poets, I suggest, see a recitation as an oral version of the text, in which an attempt is made to negotiate tensions between metre and form, on the one hand, and the language of a specific poem, on the other, tensions which in print can be left to lie as ambiguities. Actors need to convey a sense of having devised a performance that belongs to them personally, and do this by interposing an overlay of non-verbal vocal features which is less directly related to the text.

From the very beginning of mass media assisted advertising, advertising activities formed part of an economy of attention. By and through strategically planned and distributed media offers, customers from all parts of society tried to attract as much attention as possible on goods, services, messages or persons they wished to promote. Every new medium, from print to Internet, was rapidly instrumentalized for advertising purposes; and since all media systems as social systems are governed by economic principles in order to survive and to make money, step by step the communication of and in media societies necessarily became commercialized. That is to say that advertising has two kinds of effects: Structural ones as result of its interaction with other social systems, and semantic ones resulting from the recipients activities triggered by media offers.

Although until now nobody knows exactly how advertising works ­ research into ad effects is extremely demanding due to the complexity of its subject domain - , no one who really intends to make someone or something known, prominent, or bought can dispense with advertising. Firms and politicians, churches and lobbies, political parties or soccer clubs: they all make use of advertising in order to conquer and to preserve a position in the public sphere.

Advertising can be observed as an excellent observer of all those socio-cultural and economic developments which are deemed relevant with regard to the mentality of the specific target groups, because ads of any kind must be perfectly tuned to the respective essence of this mentality. But of course, when we observe advertising as an indicator of social developments we have to take into account that advertising is only interested in positive stories about its subjects. Advertising is overtly biased ­ and anybody knows that. Accordingly it tells stories which nobody holds to be true. But why is advertising so efficient, so inevitable, and so impertinent?

Quite evidently people in modern societies need somebody who does not tell them what there is and what they already know, but what might be and what is unheard of before ­ it is before the respective product, service etc. featured in the ad has been available. Thus, as J. Baudrillard once said, advertising is the perfect blend of mother and Santa Claus.

Even this first glimpse at advertising reveals the great variety of promising perspectives on this macro-form of communication. The section "Advertising Society" invites papers to all those perspectives, from the history of advertising to its phenomenology, from the economic to the political effects of advertising, from research in ad effects to reflections on the future of advertising. Theoretical papers as well as reports on empirical projects are welcome, all media used for advertising purposes may be analysed, production as well as distribution, reception or post processing of ads can be thematized.

Advertising in Search of the Future(s)
Siegfried J. Schmidt

It is very unlikely to assume that a forecast of the future of advertising will come true in the next future. Nevertheless advertising as well as advertising research need forecasts in terms of operative fictions serving as tools for the observation of ongoing developments. Only via the explicit deception of expectations can we learn and gain new categories for further distinctions. Advertising needs self-produced future(s) in order to master the concomitant presence.

Advertising, i.e. the prototype of the well paid battle for consequential attention faces a double paradox: (1) Attention as precondition for sale forces a self-induced sale of attention and (2) The better ads generate attention via proliferating media offers, the more attention runs short. I guess the future of the advertising system will be determined by the way these paradoxes are handled.

It is likely to assume that advertising will make progressive use of the Internet without reducing its presence in all other media. In addition, unconventional ad instruments will be developed in order to reduce the overload of ads in the various media and to come closer to the people in interactive surroundings rendering advertising a quasi-natural part of their lives.

In my paper I will argue that, on the one hand, advertising needs sub-cultural influences (e.g. music, fashion) of different kinds (e.g. so called punk, grunge or techno) to coopt and’colonize them whereas, on the other hand, new subcultures need something like the advertising mainstream in order to make a difference. There is a lack of analyzing and theorizing about this phenomenon in the social sciences. Subcultures are not non- or counter-cultures. They are cultures, i.e. dynamic systems of differences. Therefore, they function more or less in the same ways and through the same channels as the institutionalized parts of the culture industries. The subcultures work via the same mediated offers of communication. Members of so called subcultures more and more tend to use the same techniques of communication to produce media offers and to gain attention. Having reached the market of attention, other institutions such as ’mainstream media and especially the advertising industries and their trend-scouts pay attention to those underground phenomena and (ab-)use them as strategic means and themes that help to achieve advertising aims. Consequently, does it increasingly become normal to be abnormal?

More people spend more time watching, reading, listening, and using the media. It is therefore likely that more sub-cultural alliances will develop in terms of their enthusiasm, represent themselves via media offerings, and will be observed by the advertising industries. Underlined by an empirical study, I will try to show how quickly sub-cultural phenomena find their way (i.e., are adapted by the advertising industries) into commercial spots and whether or not there can be found a kind of acceleration within this adaptation as media philosophers speak of the acceleration of social changes within society and media.

Advertising Confidence
Guido Zurstiege

Above all, advertising is an absolutely practical activity ­ it is thus, unfortunately, rather far away from theory. Even though we are perfectly used to criticize its»affirmative rituals, we are still relatively inexperienced in theorising advertising as a macro-form of communication such as e.g. journalism, public relations or literature. In my paper, however, I will try to show that a non normative theory of advertising can be used fruitfully to explain and to understand advertising as a specific way of worldmaking. I will argue that the lack of confidence that we have in advertising messages is one of the crucial points that help us to understand how advertising works. My argument will evolve in three consecutive steps: I will open with a brief synopsis of the debates on advertising focusing on the question of confidence. Despite the fact that in most of these debates the lack of confidence in advertising-messages is considered to be a strong obstacle to the effectiveness of advertising, I will argue that the lack of confidence can also be instrumentalized in a most effective and creative way within the framework of advertising itself to produce consequential attention. In a second step, I will attempt to outline some of the most prominent strategies that construct respectively compensate confidence in advertising. Finally, I will examine several sample advertisements that might add some empirical evidence to the general argument of my paper.

In literary language such rhythmic and phonetic features are considered "aesthetic" and can be analyzed for "poetic diction." I consider how far the mother's speech patterns offer a prototype of such diction, serving to create an aural texture that enables foregrounding of features and coherence at several different levels, and I suggest how the infant's reception might anticipate and prepare for later poetic response. In a wider sense, the significance of babytalk can be seen within an evolutionary perspective that points to the power of the arts to dehabituate and retune cognitive and affective processes.

These insights from Darwinian ethics enable us to describe and account for a narrative one finds universally -- my examples are the African Epic of Sundiata, the medieval French Song of Roland, and the North American Native story Blood-Clot-Boy. In this narrative, a villain commits a violation of the cooperative relationship against someone, either by refusing to cooperate with that person or by committing an act of aggression or cheating against him. The villain is then punished by a hero who is supernaturally strong and who represents a moral ideal. We tell this story because it reinforces the illusions about ourselves that evolutionary psychologists have described: the hero presents an ideal image of the self as altruistic and strong with which we identify.

The Negotiation of Scenarios in Five Novels of Female Development
Joseph Carroll

A relatively naive form of sociobiological literary criticism consists in examining fictional texts and pointing out that the characters follow certain basic patterns of behavior in areas such as survival, status seeking, mate selection, reproduction, parent-child interaction, and nepotism. Psychologically more sophisticated interpretive efforts have extended this list to include other topics in mainstream psychology such as the theory of emotions, development, and individual differences in personality. The most advanced form of sociobiological criticism integrates the analysis of represented behavior with the analysis of specifically literary structures such as verse forms, the organization of narrative, tonal organization, the use of symbolic motifs, and the manipulation of point of view. I shall argue that this latter category point of view--has a special status. Literary representations are communicative acts, and meaning is always meaning for some specific person, from some specific point of view. Drawing on Anatonio Damasio and E. O. Wilson, I shall designate literary representations as "scenarios" or interpretive models of reality, and I shall argue that literary meaning emerges out of the interaction from among three sets of scenarios: the author's own (generally privileged) version of truth and reality; the versions formulated by the characters depicted, and the version implicitly attributed to the putative audience. The author negotiates with the divergent and often conflicting meaning systems of his characters, and he or she negotiates simultaneously with the expectations, values, sympathies, and antipathies of his or her putative readers. To illustrate these claims, I shall be comparing five novels that depict the personal development of young women: Austen's Pride and Prejudice, Bronte's Villette, Cather's O Pioneers!, Bennet's Anna of the Five Towns, and Hardy's Tess of the d'Urvbervilles. These novels have been chosen to illustrate specific differences in the authors' relations to their subject.

I try to meet these objections by investigating not only institutional factors but also the social background of the first-time poets as well as the symbolic space in which they took positions. Therefore, for all first-time poets between 1968 and 1976 (except for those published at their own expense or by distinctly regional or religious publishing houses; 106 in toto) data is collected regarding publication strategies, sideline activities, institutional recognition as well as preferences, artistic choices, symbolic position-takings, social background and educational level. These data were obtained in different ways, through mail questionnaires, excerption of polemic articles, manifestos and interviews, bibliometric study, and content analysis of the reviews the authors received until 1981, and were analysed by means of correspondence analysis, allowing for an assumption-free investigation of the relations between all elements determining the course of their literary careers.

1. The statistical psychological portraits of meanings for canonized poets seems to be in agreement with memoirs of their friends. It was shown at the same time, that a frequency strength of manifestations in a poetry does not coincide with claims of biographers. Very rare manifestations had been interpreted as determining ones. Maybe quantitative analysis can give a criterion for understanding what is important in creator's psyche.

2. Self portraits of two contemporary poets using the same 23 scales coincide with psychological portraits obtained from the expert estimations of each of poem. This result demonstrates that the poetry is the exact reflection of self-cognition of a poet. Are self-cognition and life manifestations the same? That is a question, and we hope to provide an answer at the congress.

I have been collecting data of both male and female writers who have published prose and/or poetry in the postwar Dutch literary field. I choose to collect data of five years; 1947, 1957, 1967, 1977, and 1987. A part of these authors were selected at random and their sideline activities were collected. Sideline activities include the publication of prose or poetry in literary magazines, critical writing for newspapers and (literary) magazines, membership of a literary movement or other poetical activities like publishing work in a compilation. Also, more organizational activities, like an editorship of a literary magazine or membership of a jury for awarding literary prizes, are included to give an overview of activities in the literary field. The research will focus on the assumption that female writers engage less in activities in the literary field than do their male contemporaries. It is also possible to compare different generations of writers within the postwar Dutch literary field and their number of literary activities.

Sierra Leone's civil war in particular is known to have claimed the lives of quite a number of journalists. These days, nobody or perhaps only few people think about those journalists who have died in the process of trying to accurately inform their listeners or readers. At a recent peaceful demonstration, one journalist, Saoman Conteh, was gunned down. Another, Edward Kamara of the SLBS TV sustained gun-shot wounds. Many others narrowly escaped death.

In reporting the war this time round, I would like to admonish journalists to be very careful. They should know that a dead correspondent is a bad correspondent. In fact, I am yet to see a news agency that would be more interested in a news story than the life of its correspondent. Be on your guard. There is something about war reporting once you start reporting you are tempted to continue and continue and continue. Reporting the war (or fighting?) around Freetown, as it is, is not as difficult as doing the same from the provinces in terms of communication facilities. Until the war situation turned upside down, the news about the war was localized in the provinces, especially the East. You can imagine the frustration in having a well-prepared report which is virtually useless because there is no way to pass it over for public consumption.

To my colleagues, I say, don't ever go to the front line if you have no means of dispatching your reports. It is as good as doing nothing. When you go into war reporting, make sure you are sent there by some organization. Never go there just in the name of bravery. Even for a freelance journalist, never go to report a war without any news agency knowing what you are doing. Being a war journalist may be a fashionable title but once you've set out to the front your sense of judgment must be sharp, in fact sharper. When you live to report, you must have it at the back of your mind that your are a journalist, not a soldier. Your have no business with guns but with pens and microphones. Try to be neutral as best as possible. In war, there is an aphorism that truth is the first causality. The question as to whether to tell the whole truth as you see it, begs for answer. If you tell the truth about your nation's weaknesses or losing a battle, you step on the toes of most people including, of course, the government.

James Joyce's Ulysses was content analyzed using the Regressive Imagery Dictionary. Among other things, this dictionary allows one to assess the degree of presence, in texts, of primordial thought content (love, sex, food, chaos, dream, flying, for example). A negative linear profile was observed, i.e., primordial content decreases as the one-day journey goes by.

Pondering this negative linear profile makes one wonder about the enterprise of statistical analysis, how little it tells us, how brittle is a quantitative analysis of a literary work in the face of the uncertainty that surrounds such data. New ways to look at literary data consist of re-sampling thousands of time data that by nature exist in only one exemplar, bringing empirical study of literature down to what literature is made of, inking out, excisions, alterations, disappearances. The rates of primordial thought content were repeated 2,000 times, using a bootstrap algorithm.

The best contribution one can make to empirical studies of literature is not to collect more p< something that doesn't prove a thing, but to hammer scholars in order to see how well re sampling allows one to assess the degree of uncertainty associated with any measurement. Until now, there is no indication that empirical studies of literature so much as noticed the difference that has taken place in processing textual data by a systematic exploration of uncertainty.

Dans cette littérature étrangère soumise à la censure, la littérature française occupe une place importante, et ceci pour plusieurs raisons: la proximité géographique et le voisinage, la francophonie traditionnelle des intellectuels espagnols, ou le rôle, positif ou négatif, souvent joué par la France dans l'histoire de l'Espagne; cette France souvent considérée, sous le franquisme, comme source de tous les maux.

Notre travail se propose d'étudier la censure exercée par le régime franquiste sur les écrits des auteurs français, à travers l'étude des dossiers de la censure officielle de l'Etat ainsi que la censure officieuse, c'est-à-dire ecclésiastique. Cette censure sur les oeuvres françaises a commencé dès le lendemain de la chute de Madrid, le 30 mars 1939, aux mains de Franco, quand le journal officiel du régime (Hoja de Burgos) publie une liste d'écrivains français considérés comme "ennemis" par le régime franquiste. Nous avons choisi un échantillon formé de seize écrivains français: onze appartenant au XXš siècle, et cinq appartenant au XIXš siècle. Car cette censure ne s'exerçait pas seulement sur les écrits nouveaux, mais également sur la ré-édition d'écrits déjà publiés et édités auparavant.

Notre travail se propose donc un double but. D'une part, ce que révèle et dénote les dossiers de censure sur l'évolution interne du régime franquiste au long de ses quarante ans d'existence, à travers l'évolution des critères et des décisions de censure. D'autre part, ces dossiers de censure permettent de constater et de déduire quelle image de la France et quelle version de la littérature française étaient officiellement permises en Espagne franquiste, et quelles autres étaient interdites.

This first official law had to be amended several times to cooperate wiith the political and social development of the country. This paper intends to primarily investigate some of the major incidents in which books were not only banned but also the writers of these books were severely punished. The paper aims at analyzing the socio-political context of each of these incidents to convey the relationship between the Egyptian State and religion. The religious Islamic sentiment aroused by the abolishment of the Caliphate in Turkey in 1924, which ended the long established political system of the Ottoman Empire, created an atmosphere of political insecurity among Muslims. This atmosphere created a very strong reactionary movement in Egypt that led to the establishment of the Muslim Brothers Society in 1928. The impact of this society, which developed into a semi-unofficial political party that is still very active today, is to be taken into consideration. Another major factor to be considered is the conflict relationship between the well-established old Islamic educational institution, al-Azhar, and the relatively modern established secular university founded in 1908. The essential censored material to be dealt with will be academic as well as non academic research publications. It will also include, as a secondary material, some literary production such as novels, poetry, plays and short stories. The period to be covered is the twentieth century.

David Bleich

The study of language and literature resists this procedure. Relative to the slow changes of cosmic, chemical, or biological phenomena (all of which do change over time), changes in language and literature are rapid, changing their ways at rates perceptible within human lifetimes. Repeatable experiments are therefore not possible, as a rule. Yet these subjects and their dependence on the shape and history of society are as material as the subjects traditionally studied by empirical techniques.

In this century, from the later work of Wittgenstein, disciplined ways of doing empirical investigations of language and literature have emerged. His categories, "language games," "forms of life," and "family resemblance," are distinctive because they enable explanations of language that accommodate the way language use continuously changes.

This, as Jerome Stolnitz has argued, presents a problem for the cognitivist about literature, that is, one who believes that a work of art can reveal something to us about the world by engaging our imaginative faculties. Imagination, according to the cognitivist, can be a source of knowledge, and so literature can teach us, particularly about the human condition. This view is intuitively appealing, especially for those who enjoy literature and take interest in its history and formal properties. But the inconsistency of literary works does force us to question how we can discover that a proposition is true without experience of the world. It seems implausible that imaginative engagement with a non-actual world could teach us something about the actual world.

In this paper, I offer a modest version of cognitivism that can accommodate the inconsistency problem. To forge a link between a fictional world and the actual one. I propose a model of imaginative knowledge in aesthetic experience that is analogous to (but not a kind of) a priori or deductive forms of understanding. By implying an organic notion of the literary work, this model will point us toward a solution to a further problem for cognitivism, namely, whether any cognitive meaning a literary work would contribute to the work's aesthetic or literary value.

In this presentation I will attempt to draw this comparison out to show that there are data in literary studies equivalent to the rocks of the geologists, and that it's possible to imagine a process by which a field might come to the kind of dramatic new consensus that geology has come to, by looking at some examples of how different stories need to be told about our data, as about the data of the geologist, according to our deepening understanding of the context of the data. It make a difference what situation you find a text in, in exactly the same way as it makes a difference what context you find a piece of gabbro in -- and the situation is constructed by the story you tell about it.

Using examples from student and other readings of literary texts in differently constructed contexts, I'll try to demonstrate how radical this difference can be, what dramatic effects it can have on your perception of the data and the stories you tell about them. If I don't introduce an equivalent of plate tectonics, I'll at least suggest that we may well be currently working in an exhausted paradigm.

Those of us who teach literature and write about it may have learned that something is literature by vicarious identification, for instance. Our own teachers told us it was literature, or a friend, or critics we trust. The social psychologist will be asking who does persuade us and what is persuasive. Or we learned that something is literature through direct experience of the object, through an exploratory identification. We encountered a text, say, and that text persuaded us that it is literature. In this case, the psychologist searching out the formal characteristics of literariness would look at the object rather than at talk about the object.

Most often, we readers knew what people were saying about the object even as we were reading it. This is the communal identification. Scientists pursuing empirical inquiry into this third identification would study the ways in which the formal features of the objects themselves-the texts, say--interact in our minds with the formal features of the reports other readers are giving of those objects.

It is important that scientists not become so impatient that they simplify a complex reality by silently assuming that one reader's (or viewer's or listener's) perception is definitive for all others. Scientists must not take short cuts if they want to understand what gets things accepted as literature. We shall want to understand all three ways of experiencing literariness: the vicarious, the exploratory, and the communal.

In the early days of the twenty-first century, humanistic studies -- like nations, social groups, and individuals -- can fairly be characterized as having separated into small bailiwicks or even warring constituencies. Knowledge is generally considered to be relative, socially constructed, even solipsistic.

In 1998, the American evolutionary biologist, E. O. Wilson, introduced a term, "consilience," to refer to his vision of a unified centripetal view that seeks to embrace the sciences, social sciences, and humanities. As part of the consilient endeavor, I will sketch an exploratory framework for understanding literature and the other arts ethologically as evolved aspects of human psychobiology, which includes an innate predisposition to make the ordinary (utterance, material, place, movement, sound, or idea) extraordinary.

While not denying specific and unique features of individual instances of particular arts, the existence of universal aspects is a fundamental principle of a centripetal view. With particular regard to the literary arts, for example, one would take as a starting point the assumption that they can be understood as having developed from ancient oral precursors perhaps as early as tens of thousands of years ago. Additionally, as a universal characteristic of the human species (i.e., present in every known culture), literary art (like the other arts) can be shown to arise from recognizable and common human motivations or needs; to address recognizable and common humanly-relevant themes and to use recognizable and common humanly-relevant symbols. Through elaboration, shaping, and other (aesthetic) devices, ordinary utterance is "made special" or "made strange." Thus, despite interesting differences and historical changes, one would also expect demonstrable formal, figurative, and tonal features to underlie the various literary products of different cultures.

This ethological view of art as an adaptive behaviour will be contrasted with earlier, customary views (from theology, philosophical aesthetics, sociology, anthropology, psychoanalysis, experimental and clinical psychology, and neuroscience) that consider art as essence, revelation, object (or work), neurosis, or mental faculty. I will show how these views -- unlike the ethological view -- are only partial, and cannot address with universal applicability really fundamental questions such as why the arts are found in every human society, where they come from, what they are, and why they are not only desirable but important. With particular emphasis on the literary arts, implications of a centripetal, consilient, inclusive view of the arts will be suggested.

Playdium basically represents a very high level of arcade experience with unending kinds of video and virtual reality type games. Playdium is providing free entrance for one hour for roughly 50 IGEL participants who want to visit. At the end of this hour we will have a session with some of their staff to discuss the interactive games experience. The trade-off is that they provide the entertainment experience and we provide the intellectual reflection.

As there are a limited number of places, tickets will be given out to the first 50 IGELs who apply.